Abstract

S. No	Crops	1981-82	82-83	84-84	84-85	85-86	86-87	87-88	88-89	89-90	90-91	91-92
1	Wheat	821500	832900	786000	778600	769700	222800	194800	224700	229700	223600	216400
2	Maize	23000	23700	23400	25800	26100	26400	26700	28300	9800	10500	9900
3	Millet	29100	24500	26400	28000	24200	28900	18600	27200	23300	18600	17500
4	Sorghum	52200	71500	77800	64000	61700	91300	40100	86400	74100	64100	48500
5	Guar	69781	61756	75089	74831	70714	85225	76689	164367	117726	99308	61908
6	Gram	92000	120600	120400	157900	158800	173600	118800	168800	118400	126300	105000
7	Rapeseed	45600	39800	35600	50500	33000	31600	19100	35600	32800	33500	25700
8	Pulses	20289	27730	28269	33795	44570	52319	49879	50068	72784	73723	64274
9	Dates	417	414	470	484	489	479	981	986	391	394	465
Total		415388 7	1209000	1173428	1213910	1189273	712623	545649	786421	679001	650025	549647

Source: Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, 1994

The economic contribution of other spate systems are also significant. For instance, some 50 years ago 80% of total revenue of former Kalat state was obtained through spate irrigation system of Kachhi plains in Balochistan. (Personal communication with Tehsildar Gandha Jat and Naib, Khan of Kalat at Bhag)

It is evident from the table that the cropping pattern is centred around a farming system where the household economies are diversified around crop production, livestock rearing and small scale enterprises. Crops like sorghum, maize and millet are used mainly in livestock and poultry feed. These crops are not grown on a large scale in canal irrigated areas due to competition with other commercial crops and thus mainly cultivated under spate agricultural system.

In addition to the direct economic benefits to the community, spate diversion structures also contribute significantly to the national income in an indirect manner. If not controlled properly the spate flows inflict tremendous damage to physical infrastructure, mainly Indus canals in its command areas. Flood damages to property, roads, bridges, settlements, fields and other ancillary structures are also significant. A single hill torrent Vehowa in DG Khan has caused losses of Rs. 45 million, Rs. 130.6 million and Rs. 150.30 million during floods season of 1973, 1975 and 1976. (Government of Pakistan, 1978) It can be argued that if the floods had been controlled to some extent in the upper foothills, the amount of damage could have been lesser.

On a macroeconomic scale, the equity dimension of the contribution of spate irrigation is important as well. All the districts where this system is practiced rank among the lowest in social ranking in Pakistan and are at the margin of political power structure. Also, large hordes of seasonal nomads visit the flood irrigated areas in winter season and have a unique symbiotic relationship with the hosting communities.

Social Organisation

Complex institutional practices govern the acquisition, operation and maintenance of spate irrigation systems both at individual system as well as the river basin level. Strong indigenous organisational structures have been evolved by the local communities regarding the sharing of costs and benefits of the system. Spate irrigation system is highly labour intensive and local resources and methods are applied. Local knowledge and expertise, technology, and material are used in it. It is supported by equitable and flexible social organization. Shares and rights of water have been allocated since centuries and practiced and respected by users. This irrigation system offers variety of local knowledge in many aspects of irrigation.

The water shares within a system are based on fixed flow division where the width and depth of each channel is fixed. The distribution of flood water between various systems on a single flood torrent is usually based on time flow where the duration for which a diversion weir can stand and has to be demolished afterwards, is fixed. In a few cases, the land size to be irrigated from a flood is also fixed and after the inundation of that land, the weir has to be demolished so that the downstream users can utilise it.

In most cases, these regulations are enforced through totally local and purely indigenous institutions. In some cases however, these regulations are recorded in black and white in the revenue records and the writ of state machinery can be invoked to enforce them, in case of a conflict.

In the erstwhile Kalat state and even under Pakistani authorities, there used to be special unit within administration, revenue and irrigation departments responsible for spate irrigation system. Tehsildar Ghandhajat and other staff were there as we inherited from English period. Later on when outsiders staff was transferred to these posts, system began to decline as it was not properly understood by new comers due to not having proper orientation of the spate system. Staff responsible for spate irrigation system used to stay in the field, during flood season- mostly monsoon, for supporting the local water user associations and farmers. They would make sure that water shares and rights are observed between upstream and tail end farmers according to agreed customary laws and procedures. They had the knowledge of spate irrigation system dynamics and knew the importance of social organization. Presently level of expertise and interest lacks among officials responsible for this system in spate irrigated regions as it does not offer favourable opportunities compared with perennial irrigation system.

Environmental Significance

Spate irrigation is not only an irrigation system but it applies to an ecosystem definition. This includes upstream and watershed regions, down stream and tail end, peculiar soil and field characteristics and biodiversity associated with it. The spate irrigation systems contribute both directly and indirectly in environmental improvement. The indirect or preventive benefits include recharge of groundwater in the downstream areas, no water logging or salination problems and prevention of flood damages to lands and infrastructure in the downstream areas. 

The directly visible environmental benefits include creation of a micro eco-system in the flood diversion area as a result of transportation of fertile silt and seeds of wild plants from the catchment areas carried by flood water. These areas demonstrate environment friendly agriculture and other productive systems. Crops of native varieties are grown which are compatible to extreme climatic conditions. Use of pesticides and fertilizer is almost absent thus savingthe environment from adverse effects and the whole system represents pure organic farming. These areas also have scrub vegetation that meet fuel, fibre and nutritional requirements of million of people. Spate flows bring fine silt particles and according to farmers this increases the fertility of fields. Flows also bring seeds of plants, vegetables and herbs – all beneficial for the framers and community. Medicinal herbs and plants sprout in the area after the flood water dries. Plants of leguminous nature are here such as Kandi (prosopis cineraria) and multipurpose trees as Tamarix are common to these areas. Often there is no artificial plantation in spate command areas but flooded lands are full of vegetation after irrigation. Local farmers just protect these plants to grow and mature. There is no further watering requirements of these plants and they grow under natural conditions. These plants not only meet the needs of local population but are used by animals as feedstock also.

Hill torrents of Balochistan have several endemic species of fish confined to these areas only. Ecosystem of these hill torrents is close and confined and thus has resulted in the evolution of sthese species. Every year flow from these torrents contributes in fertilization process of fish in Indus. This aspect of biodiversity importance is often not known to many experts of irrigation who only look at spate irrigation as an input for agricultural production.

In Balochistan spate flow contributes into wetlands development such as bund Khushdil Khan at Pishin in Northern Balochistan and famous Lake of Zangi Nawar in Chaghi district. Hub dam is another example where spate flow is stored for domestic water supply to be fed to Metropolitan Karachi. Several ponds and depression in hill torrents are excellent refuge and seasonal camps for migratory birds of global significance.

Watershed of these hill torrents represents global significant biodiversity such as Juniper forest, Chilghoza forest in Suleman range and upland Balochistan. These areas are extremely important to cater while designing any project of hill torrent in down stream area. Since fields are not in use round the year therefore, biodiversity especially wildlife including reptile and birds prefer to stay here due to undisturbed characteristics of the area. Even during crops native and migratory birds, reptiles, mammals, and bees prefer to stay there as pesticides are not used in these fields.

Spate irrigation system never went into problems associated with canal irrigation system such as water logging, salinity, drainage, soil deterioration etc. Spate irrigation structures require local material for construction and are thus cost effective. Since structures are temporary thus problem of silting, mainly associated with modern dams, does not appear. 

Constraints

In the above narrative, an effort has been made to demonstrate that traditional irrigation systems in general and spate irrigation in particular have been providing a major contribution to the society in terms of economic productivity, equity, social cohesion, environmental restoration and poverty reduction. Despite this, the traditional systems have seen a steady decline during the last few decades. The following account seeks to identify the major critical constraints that prevent the continuation and further development of these systems. The constraints have been classified into extrinsic and intrinsic factors for success and failure of spate irrigation.

Extrinsic Factors

The critical factors that determine the success or failure of spate irrigation systems and are of regional nature, or have to do with policy level, have been classified as intrinsic. Some of these are listed below:

Political Economy of Irrigation Development

As has been stated earlier, the spate irrigated areas of the country lie in the most marginalised and socially low-ranking districts. This is reflected in the decision making and resource allocation for irrigation sector at the national level. A review of budgetary records clearly indicates that the bulk of investment in agricultural research and physical development has gone into the canal irrigated agriculture. Spate irrigation is not the part of agriculture or engineering curriculum in any formal educational institution of the country. The severe lack of knowledge in the academia about spate irrigation and the lack of empathy in decision makers for the marginalised communities has negatively affected both the understanding about -and the state support to- this sector.

The local indigenous institutions managing all traditional irrigation systems are not recognised in the development policies of the country. They, therefore, remain on the very margin of decision making structure, without any entitlement to seek institutional support of the state.

Since main structures remain unattended on the basis of economics alone, therefore, activities in command areas are also remain untouched. Crops in these areas are of native varieties and scientists have not worked on the improvement of these cultivars. Yields remain low as improvement work has not been done at research centres and laboratories to harness the further potential. When analyzing these structures on cost-benefits ratio, these native crops do not show favourable cost calculations. Environmental cost conservation because of positive side effects such as absence of water logging, salinity, seepage, drainage, displacement and other aspects are not credited to this system.

On technical side, we have not yet reached to a solution of silting associated with this system. All efforts are made in the light of modern irrigation structure and problem is seen in the light of mega projects. Result is obvious in no progress and leaves uncomfortable feelings among local communities dependent upon this system. Local knowledge and expertise is hardly appreciated for research, study and consideration. Technical experts believe only in cemented structures and reinforced material, policy makers believe in cost–benefits ratio, politician believe in mega projects and poor farmers only wait and are frustrated.

Climatic Change

The whole of the region which serves as a watershed for the spate irrigated areas has been chronically arid and the rainfall pattern has been historically arid. The last decade has been particularly catastrophic because of little or no rainfall, leading to an extremely severe drought. This has wreaked havoc on the local economy and the farmers have been ruined. As a result, massive out migration from these areas has occurred and now there is little man or animal power available for construction of diversion structures.

Environmental Degradation

The upstream watershed of most of the spate irrigated areas has been massively degraded. Due to deforestation and over-grazing, the rains in the mountains turn into flash floods and lead to soil degradation. This results in degradation of riverbeds in the flood irrigated areas, making the river bed too deep for the farmers to construct diversion structures.

Biased Mechanisation Policy

The degradation of river beds has made the farming communities more and more dependent on mechanised construction of diversion structures and channels. The political economy discussed above is reflected in a bias for allocation of subsidised bulldozer hours to the perennial agriculture making it impossible, or at least very difficult, for the poor farmers to obtain this support. Even the locally appointed officials from the line departments, because of the lack of political support and lack of understanding about these systems, fail to play an active part in allocation of these services to the farmers.

Intrinsic Factors

The critical factors that determine the success or failure of spate irrigation systems and are of local nature, have been classified as intrinsic. Some of these are listed below:

Physical Factors

The environmental degradation in the watershed areas and the resulting flash floods have made the river beds so deep in certain areas that it is no more physically possible for the farming communities to construct the earthen bunds to divert water. The political economy of resource allocation at the policy making levels makes the availability of state support for reversing the degradation very difficult. This affects the local population depending upon this source of livelihood.

In various areas, the construction of physical infrastructure such as roads and perennial irrigation canals has obstructed or diverted the natural water ways that the communities used to utilise for spate irrigation. A recent study done by a national NGO shows that construction of Chashma Right Bank Canal has deprived various communities of the flood water for irrigation. Similar doubts are being expressed about the newly proposed Kachhi canal in Balochistan.

Economic Factors

Spate irrigation is largely a source of subsistence agriculture and the incomes are neither too high nor very reliable. This has led to people switching to other sources of livelihood such as paid government employment elsewhere or as farm labourers in perennially irrigated areas. Additionally, the connection of various areas to the national electricity grid has prompted the relatively richer farmers to invest in tubewell development for growing cash crops. This factor has also contributed towards people withdrawing from spate irrigation in favour of more lucrative modes of farming.

The Way Forward

A number of issues need to be addressed at various levels to save and further promote the spate irrigation systems which play an immensely important social, environmental and economic role in the country. The broad categories of the salient issues are described briefly in the following narrative.

Rethinking National Development Policies

The political economy of development planning in the country has been directing the investment towards large infrastructure development projects, driven by the “modernisation” paradigm of development. This thought is popular among the implementation level officials as well because of larger possibilities of rent seeking and corruption in such projects. There is a need to redirect the investment towards community oriented and need based interventions with intermediate technology components. 

The spate irrigation systems, operated by the community based local institutions, using intermediate technology, are in a dire need of state sponsorship in the form of support in subsidised earth moving machinery. This has to be provided at least during medium to short term until the environmental degradation is halted and reversed to a manageable extent. Also, the local indigenous institutions have to be recognised as legal entities to work as intermediaries for this investment to ensure local level accountability and transparency.

Similarly, while planning large productive and social infrastructure, the social and environmental cost of the damage to spate irrigation systems is often disregarded in “the supreme national interest”. The case of Chashma Right Bank Canal and the proposed Kachhi Canal are examples of this empathy. This is largely a product of the skewed power structure, absence of a democratic culture and obsession of the policy makers with “modernisation: paradigm of development. This trend needs to be halted through lobbying and advocacy by civil society groups, media and human and cultural rights organisations.

Innovative Technical Solutions

It is not useful, even possible, to divert all the flood through the construction of a concrete wall across the flood torrent. An optimal mix of modern concrete, semi-modern gabion and traditional earthen construction material has to be used. For this, a re-orientation of the governmental staff working on irrigated agriculture is needed. Unfortunately, local institutions and traditional irrigation systems do not form the part of formal educational curriculum in any national institution. There is ample experience available with some entities from the civil society who have worked on this sector through community participation. There is a need to bring this knowledge together in an organised manner and made part of educational and training curriculum.

The true potential of spate irrigation as a source of organic food and fibre as well as of other ancillary products needs to be recognised at academic, policy and implementation levels. Agricultural experts can come forward to investigate field level problems pertaining to crops and associated cropping pattern. Crops resistance to drought and shortage of water can be studied and improved through research. Extension work can improve the land husbandry practices such as skills enhancement in the fields like seed improvement including grading, storage, and handling, that will have great impact on yield. Cultivation of medicinal plants is another aspect which needs attention. The herbal experts believe spate irrigation to be an ideal cultivation systems for these plants without the use of fertilizer and pesticides. In the international market, especially in developed countries, the popularity of organic products is an emerging trend. The state and market institutions need to explore the opportunity for tapping this potential source of earning for the country and the communities.

Integrated Water Resource Management

Rivers and other eco-systems do not follow the man-made sectoral or administrative boundaries. It is not possible to effectively address the issue of degradation by providing symptomatic spot relief at one point and ignore the rest of the system. In order to make the floods more manageable, both for loss-prevention and for productive use, consideration will have to be given to the whole of the river basins starting from watershed management to off-take level construction. At present, soil conservation, watershed management, rangeland conservation, irrigation development and on-farm water management form the mandate of different entities within the government and they do not always work under an integrate plan on an eco-system. Their diffused interventions prevent any significant, visible and discernable impact from coming to the forth. This inter-institutional disharmony needs to be resolved so that a systematic plan for resource conservation and poverty alleviation can be implemented.

References

IUCN and Government of Balochistan, Balochistan Conservation Strategy, Quetta, 2001

Government of Pakistan, Conservation and Development of Land and Water Resources of Upper Kaha Hill Torrents Watershed, NES Pak, Lahore 1995

Government of Pakistan, National Flood Commission Plan – 1978, NESPAK, Lahore (Vol I&II)

Munir, M. & Muhammad Akran Kahlown, Sailaba Irrigation in Baluchistan: Bench Mark Study. Lahore, WAPDA Planning Directorate (south) (1989) 

Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, UNEP, ESCAP, Combating Desertification in Pakistan, 1994

Shah, S.H, Cropping Pattern in Rod-kohi Agriculture in D.I. Khan. In: BARD Rod-kohi agricultural problems and prospects Symposium, November 27-29. Islamabad, 1989

Van Steenbergen. Frank, Institutional Changes in local water resource management – cases from Balochistan, The Royal Dutch Geographical Society, Utrecht, 1997